by National Institute on Aging

Asking questions is key to good communication with your doctor. If you don’t ask questions, he or she may assume you already know the answer or that you don’t want more information. Don’t wait for the doctor to raise a specific question or subject; he or she may not know it’s important to you. Be proactive. Ask questions when you don’t know the meaning of a word (like aneurysm, hypertension, or infarct) or when instructions aren’t clear (for example, does taking medicine with food mean before, during, or after a meal?).

Due to COVID-19, health care providers may offer more telehealth services to keep patients and health care providers safe. You can talk to your health care provider online through video or email, or by phone.

Sometimes, doctors need to do blood tests, X-rays, or other procedures to find out what is wrong or to learn more about your medical condition. Some tests, such as Pap tests, mammograms, glaucoma tests, and screenings for prostate and colorectal cancer, are done regularly to check for hidden medical problems.

Before having a medical test, ask your doctor to explain why it is important, what it will show, and what it will cost. Ask what kind of things you need to do to prepare for the test. For example, you may need to have an empty stomach, or you may have to provide a urine sample. Ask how you will be notified of the test results and how long they will take to come in.

Questions to ask your doctor before a medical test

Why is the test being done?

What steps does the test involve? How should I get ready?

Are there any dangers or side effects?

How will I find out the results? How long will it take to get the results?

What will we know after the test?

When the results are ready, make sure the doctor tells you what they are and explains what they mean. You may want to ask your doctor for a written copy of the test results. If the test is done by a specialist, ask to have the results sent to your primary doctor.

Can I find information about medical tests online?

Yes—there is a lot of information online about medical tests. The National Library of Medicine’s MedlinePlus website provides links to many trustworthy resources. You can get information on preparing for lab tests, explanations of different tests, and tips on interpreting lab test results.

A diagnosis identifies your disease or physical problem. The doctor makes a diagnosis based on the symptoms you are experiencing and the results of the physical exam, laboratory work, and other tests.

Ask the doctor to tell you the name of the condition and why he or she thinks you have it. Ask how it may affect you and how long it might last. Some medical problems never go away completely. They can’t be cured, but they can be treated or managed.

Questions to ask your doctor about your diagnosis

What may have caused this condition? Will it be permanent?

How is this condition treated or managed? What will be the long-term effects on my life?

How can I learn more about my condition?

Understand your medications

Your doctor may prescribe a drug for your condition. Make sure you know the name of the drug and understand why it has been prescribed for you. Ask the doctor to write down how often and for how long you should take it.

Make notes about any other special instructions. If you are taking other medications, make sure your doctor knows what they are, so he or she can prevent harmful drug interactions. Check with your doctor’s office before taking any over-the-counter medications.

Let the doctor know if your medicine doesn’t seem to be working or if it is causing problems. If you want to stop taking your medicine, check with your doctor first.

Get answers to commonly asked questions about medicines and learn more about how you can save money on costly prescriptions.

Don’t hesitate to ask the doctor about the cost of your medications. If they are too expensive for you, the doctor may be able to suggest less expensive alternatives. You can ask if there is a generic or other less expensive choice. You could say, for instance: “It turns out that this medicine is too expensive for me. Is there another one or a generic drug that would cost less?”

For more information about questions to ask the doctor

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
800-232-4636
888-232-6348 (TTY)
[email protected]
www.cdc.gov

by Nina Silverberg, Ph.D., director of the NIA Alzheimer’s Disease Research Centers program

Imagine being able to look inside the brain of a person with Alzheimer’s disease and see the changes that are interfering with that person’s thinking, memory, and other important brain functions. Scientists working in the field of neuropathology are doing just that.

Using a variety of methods, neuropathologists view patterns of abnormal protein clusters and cellular damage in brain tissue under a microscope and through computer-driven imaging. They use that information to characterize the changes that occur in the brain with particular diseases or conditions.

For example, in 1906, the psychiatrist and neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer first identified the abnormal buildup of protein fragments — amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary (tau) tangles — in the brain tissue of a woman who had died from a previously unknown disease that caused a decline in her ability to think, remember, and speak. This illness was later named Alzheimer’s disease, which is the most common form of dementia. Neuropathologists today continue to actively work on identifying the changes that can be seen in the brain after death and connecting those to symptoms and biological processes observed during life.

Neuropathology is the study of diseases of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves through analyzing tissues removed during autopsy or biopsy. This analysis is central to research on Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Neuropathology researchers look for signs of disease and disease progression and can identify whether changes in the brain are related to the protein accumulations seen in Alzheimer’s disease, like in the image below, or to other underlying causes of dementia.

Long before the symptoms of memory loss appear, many molecular and cellular changes take place in the brain of a person with Alzheimer’s. Neuropathology research has been essential in helping to identify these biological changes, called biomarkers, and revolutionizing the methods scientists and doctors can use to diagnose and treat these diseases. For example, 20 years ago, the only sure way to know whether a person had Alzheimer’s was through autopsy. Since then, researchers have developed and tested methods to “see” evidence of protein fragments associated with Alzheimer’s on brain scans, in cerebrospinal fluid, and even in blood while people are still alive. Being able to diagnose Alzheimer’s in the early stages is helping researchers to test new treatments that may slow or stop progression of the disease.

Still, as far as neuropathology has evolved, there is much to learn. For example, not everyone with amyloid plaques and tau tangles — the hallmark signs of Alzheimer’s — will eventually develop this disease. In addition, many people who are diagnosed with Alzheimer’s dementia have evidence of other pathologies in their brain, either instead of or in addition to those associated with Alzheimer’s. What factors influence the development of these different dementia-related pathologies? How can science help to better identify the underlying causes of dementia symptoms, so that we can better diagnose, treat, and prevent dementia? What causes the variability in the rate, severity, and type of cognitive decline among people with Alzheimer’s?

To address these questions and other complexities of dementia diseases, NIA-supported researchers are using the power of neuropathology in both traditional and innovative ways. For example, large studies of healthy adults over many years, new technologies to understand changes in individual brain cells, and collaboration among scientists with different expertise is equipping researchers with the information needed to map the connections between brain changes and risk factors that lead to dementia.

Neuropathology led to the discovery of Alzheimer’s disease and continues to provide invaluable insights today. NIA supports a wide range of neuropathological research to identify how and why these brain changes happen and to help develop tailored treatment and prevention strategies across diverse populations.